US Pharm.
2006;7:HS-5-HS-9.
There
is growing evidence that numerous drug-induced allergies are not mediated by
the pathogenic role of allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE). The case for
such non–IgE-mediated, or pseudoallergic, reactions is proposed
on the basis of the mechanism of mast cell and basophil activation. The
pseudoallergic symptoms can resemble those of a true allergy but are caused by
histamine release from cutaneous mast cells. Oral and injectable opioids are
among the drugs that cause these symptoms, but the symptoms may not be due to
a true allergy. Therefore, in patients who show these reactions, it is
important to choose a safe alternative drug. Remember that most patients who
say they are allergic to an opioid have experienced only a side effect that
has been misclassified as an allergy. Published data suggest that as many as
nine out of 10 patients labeled with an opioid allergy do not have a true
allergy.1 On the other hand, patients who are considered allergic
to an opioid present a serious challenge to clinicians because pain is not
always controlled with nonopioid alternatives such as NSAIDs. This article
briefly discusses the true opioid allergy versus pseudoallergy, opioid side
effects, and alternative options to control pain.
Allergy Symptoms
All opioids,
particularly the naturally occurring and semisynthetic compounds, cause
allergic reactions. Codeine, morphine, and meperidine are the main opioids
that cause most allergic-type reactions. Although some of the symptoms
resemble those of a true allergy, they are in reality symptoms of
pseudoallergies caused by endogenous histamine release from the mast cells,
which is also considered a pharmacological effect. These symptoms include
flushing, itching, sneezing, hives, sweating, exacerbation of asthma, and low
blood pressure, and their occurrence depends on the concentration of opioids
in the mast cells. A true allergy to opioids is rare and seems to be IgE
mediated or T-cell mediated. Symptoms of a true opioid allergy include hives,
maculopapular rash, erythema multiforme, pustular rash, severe hypotension,
bronchospasm, and angioedema.1,2
Classification of Opioids
There are three
different chemical classes of opioids. They are as follows:
•
Phenanthrenes--codeine, hydromorphone, levorphanol, morphine, oxycodone,
hydrocodone, and pentazocine.
•
Phenylpiperidine--meperidine and fentanyl.
•
Phenylheptane--methadone and propoxyphene.
Often, a patient who is
allergic to an opioid from one class (e.g., morphine, a phenanthrene) may be
treated with an agent from another class (e.g., methadone, a phenylheptane)
without cross-sensitivity. Even though the risk of cross-sensitivity is
extremely low, patients who exhibit a true allergic reaction to one of the
opioid analgesics should be monitored carefully if an agent from another class
is substituted. For example, IgE antibodies isolated from a patient allergic
to morphine were able to bind to fentanyl. Morphine antibodies have also shown
some reactivity with methadone and meperidine.2
Diagnosis of Opioid Allergy
It is important to
distinguish between nonallergic and allergic patients. If the nature and cause
of the reaction are not clear, the administration of opioids should not be
withheld. In the event that the reaction is found to be opioid related,
information from the patient's medical history can be used to choose a safer
opioid. As an example, if the patient was able to tolerate other opioids, it
may give a clue to a new narcotic choice. Other helpful points may be the
symptoms, food, and other medications that the patient has taken before the
reaction. Review of a patient's medical records and medication profile may be
helpful in diagnosis. Normally, elevated total IgE levels during the acute
allergic reaction suggest a true allergy, but IgE could also be elevated for
reasons unrelated to drug allergy.1,3
Tests for IgE to specific
opioids have been developed but are not readily available. Skin testing has
been suggested before a structurally unrelated opioid is used in a patient
with a serious opioid reaction.4 Yet false-positive results due to
pharmacologic histamine release have been documented with codeine, morphine,
and meperidine. If the above methods of determining whether a reaction is a
true allergic reaction do not produce satisfactory results, the patient should
be referred to an allergist or immunologist for further work-up.
Adverse Effects vs. Allergy
and Their Management
Patients should
always be informed and educated about possible side effects of opioids and
monitored for adverse side effects on a regular basis. Some of the most common
side effects of opioids are constipation, dry mouth, nausea, vomiting, and
mental confusion. Histamine-release reactions are considered both a symptom of
pseudoallergy as well as an adverse effect.
The majority of patients
taking opioids on a chronic basis will develop constipation, a side effect of
all opioids--that is, opioid-receptor–mediated with both central and peripheral
mechanisms (decreased gastrointestinal motility). The best course of action is
to prescribe a stool softener (psyllium or docusate) and to instruct the
patient in the use of a stimulant or enema as needed, at the time of the
original opioid prescription. Some patients may require daily, regularly
scheduled laxatives or bowel therapy.5 Another very common side
effect is dry mouth. Regular sips of water, artificial saliva, or
sorbitol-sweetened hard candy (which also counters constipation) may help to
relieve dry mouth.
It is reported that in
clinical practice, about 30% to 60% of patients receiving opioid therapy will
develop nausea and/or vomiting in the beginning but will develop tolerance
within five to 10 days. It is important to note that the pain, along with the
anxiety associated with it, can cause nausea independent of opioid therapy. It
is generally believed that some of the effect may come from stimulation of
opioid receptors at the chemoreceptor trigger zone in the medulla. If the
effect is receptor-related, equianalgesic doses of different opioids are
expected to produce the same amount of nausea. Patients beginning long-term
opioid therapy, and especially those with a history of nausea and/or vomiting
with opioids, should have access to prophylactic antiemetics. The
most-preferred antiemetics are metoclopramide 10 mg or pro chlorperazine 10
mg every four to six hours as needed. If nausea is not adequately controlled
with predose antiemetics, and the patient does not develop tolerance, an
alternative route of administration or analgesic may be necessary.3,6
Opioid Toxicity
There are several
symptoms and conditions, such as confusion, agitation, visual defects, vivid
dreams or nightmares, and visual and auditory hallucinations, that may be due
to opioid toxicity. These symptoms differ from patient to patient and are
dependant on the dose of opioids, pain response, rate of dose titration,
concomitant medications, and renal and hepatic function. Opioid toxicity can
be managed by giving adequate hydration, acutely treating agitation, reducing
the dose of the opioid, or changing to a different one.4
Another important issue is
pharmacological tolerance, defined as a decline in pain relief with increasing
opioid dose. In some cases, it is not clear whether the lack of response to
the analgesic is due to the tolerance, disease progression, noncompliance, or
inappropriate dosing. In any case, switching to another opioid may provide
improved analgesia, although there is no evidence that one opioid is more
effective than another.7
Choosing an Analgesic
In patients with
history of allergic-type opioid reactions such as flushing, itching, sweating,
hives, and/or mild hypotension, the opioid dose should be reduced and an
antihistamine administered simultaneously. The pseudoallergic reactions appear
to be a function of opioid dose and potency; therefore, a higher-potency
opioid may be helpful, but it needs to be given at a lower dose and rate. In
the event that an opioid is necessary, an opioid in a different structural
class can be selected; however, the patient needs to be monitored closely.
3
If a patient is labeled as
having an allergy to codeine or morphine, clinicians may want to use a
synthetic opioid such as meperidine or fentanyl. These drugs have
disadvantages; meperidine is short acting and is associated with central
nervous system (CNS) adverse effects, such as seizures, even in patients with
good renal function. Fentanyl is a potent alternative to morphine, but it is
not available as a tablet or capsule, and some patients show a reaction under
the fentanyl patch. Both methadone and levorphanol must be dosed cautiously.
Their long half-lives can cause drug accumulation and CNS and respiratory
depression with repeated dosing. Tramadol is not an option for patients
allergic to any opioid; it is contraindicated, according to the prescribing
information. Propoxyphene and codeine are not recommended, due to poor
efficacy. Pentazocine should be avoided, due to psychiatric side effects
(e.g., dysphoria).1,3
Most of the time, a substitute
for morphine or another opioid is unnecessary because the patient has
experienced a side effect rather than an allergic reaction. For patients with
a history of allergic-type reaction, options include a nonopioid or a
carefully chosen opioid, but risks and benefits must be considered. The mild
to moderate pain may be best alleviated by acetaminophen or an NSAID. Many
NSAIDs, opioids, and adjuvant analgesics require dosage adjustment in the
elderly, in whom renal or hepatic function may be compromised.3,7
Opioid Dosing Considerations
1. As doses are
increased, the respiratory center may become less sensitive to carbon dioxide,
resulting in respiratory depression. A decrease in respiratory rate is often
preceded by severesedation. The risk of respiratorydepression isincreased by
excessive doses (i.e., doses greater than those needed to relieve pain) or
doses given when there is no pain.Opioids must be titrated against pain to
keep respiratory depression at a minimum. Pure narcotic antagonists (e.g.,
naloxone, naltrexone) reverse respiratory depression. Sudden, severe sedation
often precedes respiratory depression and is a warning sign todecrease the
dose or increase the dosing interval.6,7
2.Sedation is
very common during the first few days of opioid administration and upon
subsequent dose increases, but it often resolves quickly. Sedation is
synergized by concomitant use of other medications with CNS-depressanteffects
(e.g., antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and skeletal muscle relaxants).
3. Abrupt
discontinuation or significant decrease in opioid dosing in all chronic users
of opioids will precipitate some degree of withdrawal. Commonsymptoms include
restlessness, lacrimation, rhinorrhea, yawning, perspiration, chills, myalgia,
and mydriasis. Other symptoms that may develop include irritability, anxiety,
backache, joint pain,weakness, abdominal cramps, insomnia, nausea, anorexia,
vomiting, diarrhea, or increased respiratory or heart rate.Adequate hydration
and nutritional support help make the patient comfortable and decrease
morbidity caused by vomiting and dehydration.6
The Pharmacist's Role
Pharmacists have
the opportunity to intervene and identify patients with these pseudoallergic
or true allergic problems. They can have an important role in ensuring patient
access to pain medications, as well as in monitoring for allergies, side
effects, and interactions. While dispensing medication, the pharmacist also
can collect and evaluate information on pharmacotherapy and consult the
patients about their pain medications and the outcome. It is also important
that pharmacists know enough about pain management, allergies,
pseudoallergies, and side effects to distinguish allergic from nonallergic
patients. The pharmacist's knowledge and participation in pain management
teams is not only a necessity to enhance patient quality of life but also a
resource of drug information for the other members of the medical team.
References
1. Drugs and
Therapy Bulletin at the University of Florida. 2004;18:1-4.
2. Many people think
they're allergic to opioids. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter
. 2006;22:220-221.
3. Sachs CJ. Oral
analgesics for acute nonspecific pain. Am Fam Physician.
2005;71:913-918.
4. Nasser SM, Ewan PW.
Opiate-sensitivity: clinical characteristics and the role of skin prick
testing. Clin Exp Allergy. 2001;31:1014-1020.
5. Tripp DM, Brown GR.
Pharmacist assessment of drug allergies. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1993;50:95-98.
6. Otis JA, Fudin J.
Use of long-acting opioids for the management of chronic pain. US Pharm.
2005;30(3 suppl):1-14.
7. Crabe ES. Narcotic
allergy. P & T. 1996;21:250-252.
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editor@uspharmacist.com.
Published July 20, 2006